Close reading of Thomas Grey Essay Example For Students

Close reading of Thomas Grey Essay Each in his narrow cell forever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. (Lines 15 16) This image of the coffin as the cell parallels that of a monk. The cells are enclosed and constrained just as he expresses the villagers feel later on in the poem when he suggests that they do not step forward to receive greatness. He uses the word rude to mean not only rustic, unsophisticated people, but also anonymous people. Monks are anonymous and so are those that he speaks of. There are no activities or farming duties to be done, those that once tended the land, now lie beneath it. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield, Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke; How jocund did they drive their team afield! How bowd the woods beneath their sturdy stroke! (Lines 25 28) The inevitable hour (Line 35) relates back to the first line of the poem, The curfew tolls the knell of the parting day. All people, whether poor and primitive, or influential and rich, all wait this inevitable hour, the hour of death, the hour that everybody regardless of status will one day experience. The hour in which the church bells ring out their mournful tune. The paths of glory (Line 36) not only mean those affluent people who have gained it, either through inheritance, status or rank. But to those anonymous people who no one knew or remembers, they too were glorious, but in different ways. Those glorious people have gone, and can never come back. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? (Lines 41 42) Grays play on words in line 59 again paints a picture in which these anonymous people in their graves are the same as those who could afford to pay for great memorials. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, (Line 59) Milton was deaf, not blind and was certainly glorious and admired. Gray tries to say that these people have never had the chance to show that they too are intelligent and are worthy of the same mourning as others, because they have been patronised by lisning senates and threats of pain and ruin . In Line 55, Full many a flowr is born to blush unseen, he strengthens his point by stating that the villagers have just as many qualities, and are just as intellectual as the glorious, but they move about unheard, unseen and anonymous. These villagers are still human beings and they want to be remembered, just like everyone else, but they want to be remembered for different things and for different reasons. Bibliography Butt, J. , (1963) The Poems of Alexander Pope. London: Routledge Fairer, D. , Gerrard, C. , (2004) Eighteenth Century Poetry: An Annotated Anthology. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Goodridge, J. , (1995) Rural Life In Eighteenth Century Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Loghrey, B. , (1984) The Pastoral Mode: A Selection Of Critical Essays. London: Macmillan.

Music and Teens Today free essay sample

Today music Is a necessity in many peoples lives. People listen to music all the time, from students who listen to it while studying, to adults driving to work, and those who listen to music to plainly enjoy life. Personally, I am listening to tunes on random while writing this. My point is everyday, almost everyone will encounter music weather intentionally or voluntarily It surrounds us. Music Is used in many different ways; one people use It as an outlet of expression, another Is a way to let their feelings out, and lastly people use music to identify with who they are. Nowadays, music has a major impact on tens lives everywhere. Teens begin using music as ways of asserting their individuality and by breaking away from their parents and becoming more independent. Christenson (1994) feels that tens Interest in popular music Is showing their departure of their parents dependence and a new faithfulness in friendships among each other. We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Teens Today or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With tens new need for music poses the question of how does popular music affect their well-beings. But does music diminish their conscience and cause them to Involve themselves on senseless acts of lenience and debauchery or is It something for them to relate to.Looking at children and their development, if pre-teens and children as young as first grade have shown interests in popular music (Christenson et al. ). In this research, of first to sixth graders the interest grew as their age did, as they got closer to adolescents their Interest grew. Baker (2001 ) did research on pre-teen girls and their attraction to popular music. She found that even though it seems that young girls are fascinated with the boy bands and normal top 40 songs, some of them are still interested in existing to songs with explicit lyrics.Even in children music poses as a building block In their mental development, as they reach adolescents It begins to form media exposure and Identities. Although most of popular music is considered violent and sexual it is still a major part of teenage development. Demo (1981) connects teenagers expose to popular music as an outlet to the media. While listening to music Is also a major part of the way they live. Teens listen to music while, doing homework, cleaning and driving. Teens also use music as therapy, to relieve my tension or take my mind of things tethering me. (Demo et Although Hansen and Hansen (1991) research show teens are using music as a television substitute and there is an increase In all forms of popular music this leading to more assumptions for the media to create. The Press today sees music lyrics as ways of provoking people into doing things that they arent supposed to. Rein and Springer (1986) agree with the fact that popular music is built upon aggression. Yet, Demos (et al. ) study of high school juniors, the ones who felt their parents did not care about them or their lives were more likely to be depressed, anxious, and disturbed. These teens are the ones school officials say are involved in vandalism and theft. Now, is it music the only factor in tens misbehaving or is it societys escape from of the truth. Media and society have used music many times to explain why a teen has done something he or she shouldnt have. Conscience (1996) believes there Is no proof of violent lyrics explaining people actions; the author uses an example of a Nevada lawsuit of two teens 1 OFF these suits were proved irrelevant and dismissed.The public does not hear that it is dismissed Just that the teens killed themselves because of the lyrics and not that the ease was dismissed. Another case where the media coverage failed to mention an essential detail was in Ohio when a boy was playing with fire and burned his families home done and in the process killing his two year old sister. In news reports, they claimed the boy was mocking Matss Bevies and Buttered, yet the report did not mention that the family did not have cable. Society receives these negative messages about aggressive music and tens decisions, and is able to make their assumptions about types of music with correct information. In a study done by Mitchell, Rubin, and West (2001) they researched the aggression, attitudes towards women and distrust patterns in music. The researchers looked at these negative effects and furthered their research by noting peoples music preferences and attitudes. They used a sample pool of 243 people and asked many questions regarding their anger, self-esteem to see how it relates to their music preferences.While the researchers hypothesis was that there would be higher rates of violence depending on what types of music one listens to, thinking that heavy metal and rap would have the highest numbers. In summary, the Journal of Mitchell, Rubin, and West (peg 26 et al. Is exploring the effects of popular music, mainly heavy metal and rap, and their underlining messages of violence and aggression, distrust, and aggr ession towards women. Music uses emotion to get responses from its audience whether it is positive or negative.According to the article people are angry listen to more destructive music. Also when one is listening to their music of preference they tend to listen to it with more emotions and read into the lyrics more Prior to Mitchell, Rubin and West (Peg 27-30 et al. ) researched popular music and emotions they explored previous research in the same topics and found lots of rumoring results. When looking at anger and emotions they found that, high school students experienced excitement, happiness, confidence, and love when listening to their favorite types of music. (2001, page) Yet when they listened to heavy metal and rock students had a tendency to show no emotion and were angry. But the also used this music off way to create high amounts of energy or to get pumped up. While seeking insight into self-esteem issues the authors saw that the people who listened to heavy metal had lower self-esteem. Music and attitudes studied how lyrics effected the music and the outcome of their preferences. When students were to describe their favorite songs some key factors came up; such as, love, friendship, growing up, and life struggles. (2001, peg. 27) When using music as therapy adolescents tend to find their friendship with others more trustworthy; while within that same group finding distrust in authority figures and government. Popular music follows patterns of, dominant ideologies system, parental controls, and other societal institutions. (2001, peg 27) Researchers also found aggression are theme among some types of popular music. Mitchell, Rubin, and White looked at a study done on country and rap music lyrics.Rap lyrics seemed to focus on gang fights, drive-by shootings, and general gang violence; while country musics trends were barroom fights, gay beatings, and general fights and beatings. Different studies the showed that in both of these genres that listeners behavior of elevated aggression and mood alteration were prominent in heavy metal and rock music. Lastly researchers looked at how types of music changed peoples attitudes towards Omen. Listeners of heavy metal were found to have less respect for women of authority and stereotyping of women. Mitch, Rubin, and West continued their study Ninth their own study.Mitchell, Rubin, and West (Peg 30-38 et al. ) surveyed 243 undergraduate students, Ninth 70. 4% of the group 21 and younger. By asking this group question about the music they listen to and the feeling they get while listening or after, to help prove their three hypotheses: HI : Frequency of listening to popular music will relate negatively to attitudes of trust. H2O: Rap and heavy-metal listeners will exhibit more aggression more aggressive tendencies than listeners of other popular music genres. HA: Heavy- metal listeners will exhibit negative attitudes toward women than listeners of other popular music genres. 2001, peg 30) rough the survey they posed several questions in a form of a scale so that the results could be read easier. The survey began with get feel of what genres of music people listen with listing the categories and then giving example of artist to give the students an idea of the types of music fit into the different categories. Nothing the survey they asked multiple questions about the same topic so the results Mould be more accurate. An example of these questions and the scale that was given is as follows, something makes me almost angry almost every day. (2001, peg 32) this question was scaled with 1- being completely nondestructive of me and 5- being completely descriptive of me. The entire survey was composed this way. Within the research done Mitchell, Rubin, and White (et al. ) hypotheses were not conclusive with their results. When looking at the results figuring out if there is a connection between popular music and peoples trust amongst one another; results Newer inconclusive to all people who listened to these forms of music had high indecencies of distrust. But in the category of Rap music there was significant evidence to show distrust in one another.In the results of the heavy metal genre, listeners showed to have more aggressive tendencies and a less regard for Omen, (2001. peg 36) helping prove the researchers hypothesis. However, this study does prove some of the original ideas the researchers posed, but the number of people questioned who listened to these genres made up very few of those surveyed. Out the people surveyed less than 20% of the pool listened to either heavy metal or rap. Only 45 out of the 243 in question listened to these, because of the small numbers, one answer off 5 could throw of the curve of the data.Therefore, this survey of students poled only slight prove these researchers points due to lack of numbers in the genres they were focusing on. This study helps when looking at how older teens and young adults look at music and how it makes them feel. Nevertheless, it failed to look into exactly how people and teens look at music. Personally, I went and surveyed 42 middle, high school and university teens around Albuquerque and asked them how music affects their Tyler of music the listened to, violent lyrics and if they affected them, their style and dress, and also how they felt about having music apart their lives.In the survey only four of those surveyed responded yes to acting violently because of music, and two of them were not violent act but were associated with drinking and the remaining two Newer a simple yes with no explanation. When the teens were asked about if they had acted violently because of the music they listen to, some responded, No, because I know its Just a song and music. While some responded, No I dont take music that errors to change me into a horrible person. With the majority of these teens knowi ng the difference of right and wrong and not allowing music to negatively influence their lives. When looking at what teens are listening to, 32 out of those surveyed admitted to owning or listening to CD with explicit lyrics. While 31 out of the 42 believe that the music they listen to have violent lyrics. Students quoted their music with lyrics like, Satin is my master, and If you open you mouth again I swear I am going to break it n, to mention a few. With teens listening to music with lyrics so dramatic, they are till able to differentiate between right and wrong by not participating in violent acts because of the music they are listening to.Students surveyed were then asked if music influenced the way they dress; with 20 out of the 42 responded that it did. Many of them gave examples of wearing band shirts as their style. One even got as specific as saying, l dont like pink or bright colors on them, (referring to band shirts). One even admitted that once he or she began listening to rock music they began wearing black more often, and even said, l Nasty preppy anymore. Through this I am able to see that teens will take music so strongly that they are willing to let it change how the dress, with little affect on their actions.Lastly, those surveyed were asked if they relate musical lyrics to there own lives; 33 out of 42 responded that yes they did or in some cases they do. This here is also proving Christenson (1994) ideas of children using music as an escape form their parents in transition to adulthood. By being able to use these lyrics in there own lives, teens are beginning to think for themselves and create a mental picture of their lives. Some students even said, Music makes me happy when I am sad, implying that music is their personal therapy, thus showing more independence.In closing the student were asked there over all of music and how it effects them. Most of the students responded with positive feedback. Many stated music is calming for them and helps relive stress. One student wrote, Music is way of expressing opinion and feelings. It is a way to release anger and stress even if the song itself is full of anger and stress. Other student said the music helps them work better, which goes with the ideas Demo (et al. Posed of teens using music to pass the time.Other students say that they can with out music, l cant live with out rock. Many of them plainly stated, l love music. Others attribute music to consuming their lives, Music consumes every aspect of my life whether thinking about it, playing or listening to it. However, there were still a few students who chose not to respond to this question or felt that it had no over all effect in their life. In conclusion, teens use music a stepping-stone of life. Many saying that they does something bad it is because of music.Bessel, Searcher, and Weidman (2003) cooked at when the Columbine tragedy happen how the media mention factors of blame on the killers listening to Marlin Manson, nonetheless these scholars also believe that the blame was placed falsely to insure social order would remain stable. Renee today are able to see what is right and wrong and differentiate between the two. However, if the media is willing to believe that they well have nothing to blame a troubled teen or person does something wrong and might happen to listen satanic forms of music. One my think that this is the truth we in actuality it is not.

6 Steps of the Scientific Method

6 Steps of the Scientific Method The scientific method is a systematic way of learning about the world around us and answering questions. The key difference between the scientific method and other ways of acquiring knowledge are forming a hypothesis and then testing it with an experiment. The Six Steps The number of steps can vary from one description to another (which mainly happens when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, this is a fairly standard list of the six  scientific method steps that you are expected to know for any science class: Purpose/QuestionAsk a question.ResearchConduct background research. Write down your sources so you can cite your references. In the modern era, a lot of your research may be conducted online. Scroll to the bottom of articles to check the references. Even if you cant access the full text of a published article, you can usually view the abstract to see the summary of other experiments. Interview experts on a topic. The more you know about a subject, the easier it will be to conduct your investigation.HypothesisPropose a hypothesis. This is a sort of educated guess about what you expect. It is a statement used to predict the outcome of an experiment. Usually, a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and effect. Alternatively, it may describe the relationship between two phenomena. One type of hypothesis is the null hypothesis or the no-difference hypothesis. This is an easy type of hypothesis to test because it assumes changing a variable will have no effect on the outcome. In reality, you probably expect a change but rejecting a hypothesis may be more useful than accepting one. ExperimentDesign and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis. An experiment has an independent and dependent variable. You change or control the independent variable and record the effect it has on the dependent variable. Its important to change only one variable for an experiment rather than try to combine the effects of variables in an experiment. For example, if you want to test the effects of light intensity and fertilizer concentration on the growth rate of a plant, youre really looking at two separate experiments.Data/AnalysisRecord observations and analyze the meaning of the data. Often, youll prepare a table or graph of the data. Dont throw out data points you think are bad or that dont support your predictions. Some of the most incredible discoveries in science were made because the data looked wrong! Once you have the data, you may need to perform a mathematical analysis to support or refute your hypothesis.ConclusionConclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesi s. There is no right or wrong outcome to an experiment, so either result is fine. Note accepting a hypothesis does not necessarily mean its correct! Sometimes repeating an experiment may give a different result. In other cases, a hypothesis may predict an outcome, yet you might draw an incorrect conclusion. Communicate your results. The results may be compiled into a lab report or formally submitted as a paper. Whether you accept or reject the hypothesis, you likely learned something about the subject and may wish to revise the original hypothesis or form a new one for a future experiment. When Are There Seven Steps? Sometimes the scientific method is taught with seven steps instead of six. In this model, the first step of the scientific method is to make observations. Really, even if you dont make observations formally, you think about prior experiences with a subject in order to ask a question or solve a problem. Formal observations are a type of brainstorming that can help you find an idea and form a hypothesis. Observe your subject and record everything about it. Include colors, timing, sounds, temperatures, changes, behavior, and anything that strikes you as interesting or significant. Variables When you design an experiment, you are controlling and measuring variables. There are three types of variables: Controlled Variables:  You can have as many  controlled variables  as you like. These are parts of the experiment that you try to keep constant throughout an experiment so that they wont interfere with your test. Writing down controlled variables is a good idea because it helps make your experiment  reproducible, which is important in science! If you have trouble duplicating results from one experiment to another, there may be a controlled variable that you missed.Independent Variable:  This is the variable you control.Dependent Variable:  This is the variable you measure. It is called the  dependent variable  because it  depends  on the independent variable.

Introduction to Global Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Introduction to Global Business - Assignment Example To manage the plant the CEO of the company feels that someone from top management from the headquarters Boston who needs to manage the integration of the site. Therefore the proposal is as follows First and foremost it is important to understand the culture of Malaysia so that the manger that comes from Boston can easily adapt to the culture and act accordingly. Malaysia is multi-cultural society making it easier for the manger to adapt the culture. In addition the proposed staffing model to be used in the new plant based outside Kula Lumpur is ethnocentric staffing model. The CEO plans to send from its home country for the global operation which is emphasized by the particular staffing model also. With the implementation of this staffing model, the CEO would need to focus or monitor less and the candidates are often known at the headquarters of the company (Steers & Nardon, p. 277). The training and recruitment will be conducted in headquarters. Candidates will comprise mainly from Boston and few from Malaysia and the organization would seek candidates having an extrovert nature, flexible and able to adjust in every situation and having good knowledge about different culture. But since the employees have no idea about the culture of Malaysian people and this might prove it to be difficult to adapt to the situation. Hence proper training is essential for effectiveness of the working of the plant in Kula Lumpur both for the top level management and also for the chosen employees. Assuming that the person selected is well adverse with technicality and the only thing required is training on adoption of new location. Cross culture training are required for the managers so that they adapt to the culture of the particular country. An expert from Malaysia can be hired by the company to provide the manger with cross cultural training so that the expatriates experience fewer incidence of failure. Problem 2 Transferability of Practices: The Mazda Example Third Culture The modified version of management practice is termed as â€Å"third culture†. Usually companies tend to face difficulties in setting of plant internationally mainly in transferring management practice to different culture and this was seen in Mazda situation. The American decided to work on for the Japanese and thus adopted a mix of both American and Japanese styles referred to as third culture. The case itself explains that the concept of â€Å"third culture† did work but at the same time it had to face many difficulties in the management practice. As stated in the case study the Japanese worked for United Auto makers and named it Mazda management. It used extensive testing methods to select their workers and adopted the system similar to that of Michigan plant. As per the study of Fucinis, there were several areas in the transfer of management style. The employees quit the plant as they did not see any future prospect. The Japanese had all the powers and were dictating the decisions. However after much issue the problem was solved and the Japanese’s adopted a flexible management practice. Therefore it can be said that transfer of management practice should be adopted but both the nations entering the â€Å"third culture† should have an equal participation and power to make the concept work in a managerial practice. Across Societies Transfer of managem

Cognitive Framing Theory and Spiral or Silence Research Paper - 1

Cognitive Framing Theory and Spiral or Silence - Research Paper Example The thinking and all that matters in talking does involve framing. This is the basis of cognitive framing theory. According to Lakoff (2010), a single word defines not only the word, but it activates the frames by defining much about the system that is in it. However, frames do not work in solitude but they have a direct connection to all part of the brain including the emotional regions (Lakoff, 2010). This explains why people have different taste to different circumstances. The workings of the frame make it possible for some people to like football while other dislikes the same. Thus, it is how best a frame is internalized that explains the behaviors of individuals and emotional reactions to their surroundings. The political scene is one good example where systems of frames are vehemently used. Members of political parties share the political ideologies, and they all adhere to this course. Therefore, politician uses a language that point to specific ideological systems. The process they go through whether in party fundraising or conventional nomination informs their subconscious of the principle that they defend. The development of this political ideology frames explains the subsequent behaviors. Cognitive framing theory also argues that ideological language becomes a normal language as it unconsciously activates the brain of the ideas. Therefore, people cannot avoid framing, and they can only be strengthened or weakened. There are different frames and individual choose among the many in any given situation. Moreover, there are limited ways of changing frames. The thing that a person has made cognates in the brain can only relate to news set of frames that relate to the existing systems of frames (Lakoff, 2010). The changes need to be emotional and introduced through a communication system that must be sufficient, repetitive, and full of trust for the messengers. Negating frames tend to activate

Research Questions And Hypotheses Applied When Conducting Research Psychology Essay

Research Questions And Hypotheses Applied When Conducting Research Psychology Essay Introduction Research questions and hypotheses are two internationally standard and essential components of academic research. This paper will attempt to make a distinction between the two concepts, in the process highlighting important elements within each concept. This paper will begin with an overview of the research process, explain the concepts of hypotheses and research questions and show how these two concepts are related to each other. In the second part of this paper, emphasis will be brought to bear on hypotheses and their uses in research, providing the reader some examples to illustrate. It will show how hypotheses are linked with other parts of a research study and conclude with the limitations of hypotheses. The third part of this paper examines the use of research questions in research. It offers examples of research questions, shows how they can be linked with other parts of the study and it then examines their limitations. The final part of this paper compares and contrasts hypotheses and research questions and it is from this point that the final conclusion is drawn. A General Overview of Research Research is defined as the art of scientific investigation (Kothari, 2004:p.1). It is the quest to obtain new knowledge or to extend the boundaries of that which is already known. Research, therefore, seeks to discover, explain and predict phenomena through the skilled and systematic manipulation of variables. The research process starts when the researcher encounters a question or related questions which he or she thinks could and should be answered. When a researchable question comes up in the problem area of the researcher, he or she gathers tools to find out whether the proffered solutions offered by the hypothesis/hypotheses are workable and if an intervention were to be carried out, the likely chances of its success. In academic research, the researcher is expected to link the research questions with the purpose of their study and their objectives. Explaining the Concepts The following are brief explanations of the key terms used in this paper which include hypotheses, research questions and the relationship between them. Term Definition Con Hypothesis A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation Research Questions Formally stated questions intended to provide indications about something of interest or relationships between variables in the research process Variable A quantity or attribute of a construct which is likely to vary What are Hypotheses? Hypotheses is the pluralized form of hypothesis. It originates from the Greek word hypothesis, which means groundwork, supposition or foundation. A hypothesis therefore from its early origins was used to mean a supposition, or unproven explanation for any given phenomenon. To the layman, hypotheses are simply conjectures which are proposed ideas to explain facts or observations, or simply stated, an educated guess. An example of this could be Dar es salaam is hotter than other cities because it has fewer trees. Hypotheses are also used to mean expressing an opinion based on incomplete evidence such as when a person says thinking good thoughts can heal your illnesses, and thinking bad thoughts will make you ill. In research, however, a research hypothesis represents a predictive statement, testable by the scientific method of inquiry, which relates an independent variable/s to some dependent variable(s) (Kothari, 2004, p.201). A hypothesis is also defined as a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more concepts (Gray 2004, p.7). Another important fact about a hypothesis is that it retains the character of an educated guess until facts are found to confirm or discredit it (Mauch Park, 2003, p. 136). When hypothesis are used in research, the proposition must be testable. The following are examples of testable hypotheses: Students who study for one hour a day or more perform better than students who study less than one hour a day Students who learn using the problem based learning methodology retain knowledge for longer than students who learn using traditional methods of learning. What are Research Questions? A research question is a formally stated question intended to provide indications about something of interest in the research process. It is a statement which identifies the phenomenon to be studied. A research question, unlike a hypothesis, is not limited to investigating relationships between variables. The research question is a statement framed as a question which may ask about the relationship between variables (such as dependent and independent variables) in a research study, or which may make an interrogative general statement about the area under study. The Relationship between Hypotheses and Research Questions While a hypothesis is a formal statement about the relationship between variables, the research question is a formally stated question providing indications about concepts in the study and not limited to investigating relationships between variables. Hypotheses are often guided by research questions. While some research questions may be tested by hypotheses, others do not require hypotheses testing (see page 10 below). A well thought out and focused research question is expected to lead to a hypothesis showing relationships between two variables. Hypotheses, although they are important, are not essential for an academic study. There are studies in qualitative research which are focused on theory building which start with a mere research question and end in a series of generalizations which may be made to form a theory. A research question such as the following could fit into this category: How do members of the Ankole community experience marriage? The Use of Hypotheses in Research The researcher often hypothesizes in order to help give direction to their work. When the researcher does this, he/she makes inferences based on what is known (facts) and observed conditions in reaching a decision on how to approach a study. The researcher may come to a hypothesis from a thorough analysis of the theoretical and factual background of a research problem. For example, a researcher conducting a study on the relationship between obesity and cancer may discover a trend from reading medical reports which links the consumption of certain types of foods to the onset of cancers. From this angle, the researcher may develop a hypothesis that the consumption of the foods is related to the onset of cancer and worth studying as a specific hypothesis. Types of hypotheses A hypothesis may be classified in terms of how it is derived as either inductive or deductive. While inductive reasoning seeks to create general principles from starting with many specific observations or instances, deductive reasoning seeks to create a specific conclusion based on generalizations. An inductive hypothesis is a hypothesis formed through inductive reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations of the causes. An example of inductive reasoning is from observing from Christian history that leaders in the church have been violent, intolerant and prejudiced to making an inductive hypothesis that Christians are all violent, intolerant and prejudiced. A deductive hypothesis is one which is formed through deductive reasoning which starts with a premise such as a theory, and then forms a conclusion based on that premise. An example of a deductive hypothesis is using the premise all Nigerians are scammers and Niyi is a Nigerian, therefore the conclusion Niyi is a scammer. A hypothesis may also be classified on the basis of its formulation as a research hypothesis which may be directional or non-directional, the null hypothesis, and the statistical hypothesis. As mentioned earlier research hypotheses are conjectural statements of expected results. They could either be directional or non-directional. A directional research hypothesis anticipates a specific outcome and states the expected direction of the relation or difference between variables. An example is a student class using problem-based learning will demonstrate higher achievement than a student class using teacher centered instruction methods. A non-directional research hypothesis is one on which an outcome is anticipated but the specific nature of the outcome is unsure, or put simply, it only states that a relationship exists. An example of a non-directional hypothesis is there will be differences in achievement between a student class using problem-based learning and one using teacher centered instruction methods. The null hypothesis is used in statistics and it is simply a hypothesis that no difference or relationship exists between the variables under study. This does not represent the outcome expected by the researcher and is only used for statistical reasons. The null hypothesis is the opposite of the research (or maintained or alternative) hypothesis. Linking hypotheses to other parts of the study In the quantitative approach to research, hypotheses are derived from research questions and are used to link the variables of the study. Each hypothesis may be linked to a specific research question. In empirical studies, the testability (the measure to which the hypothesis may be tested) and acceptability of a hypothesis help negate or accept a theory the theory upon which the assumption is being made. For example, in a study in which the research hypothesis states that there is a significant positive relationship between lateness to work and employee productivity, if the researcher were to discover a significant positive relationship between the two variables listed through the study, it would imply that the alternative hypothesis be accepted. Therefore the findings of the research would strengthen any underlying theory linking the concepts of lateness and employee productivity. Limitations of hypotheses A hypothesis is restricted in use in empirical research to concepts which are clear and unambiguous. A hypothesis therefore helps the researcher in the formulation of clear research concepts. A hypothesis may not be used for instance to measure concepts which have different meanings for different people. That is why, for example, it is often an elusive endeavor trying to measure concepts such as intelligence which do not lend themselves to clear empirical testing. Concepts in hypothesis must have indicators with which they can be measured by. The means of measuring indicators or instruments of measurement must be valid and reliable if the results from hypothesis testing are to be relied upon. A hypothesis is also limited to testing researchable concepts. Concepts such as the will of God may not be researchable due to the difficulty of finding valid measures. Use of Research Questions in Research Research questions are used in different ways depending on the research approach. For the purpose of this paper, we shall see how they are used in quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research Research questions could be used in quantitative studies to highlight the key variables in the research problem which need to be compared with one another in order to draw a conclusion. When they are so used they may generate a hypothesis for each question as outlined in the cases outlined below. Research questions may also be used in descriptive studies which aim to describe the characteristics of an event, region or community. An example of a research question as used in a descriptive study could be What candidate are Nigerian voters likely to support for President. Research questions, when used in quantitative research, must relate to the problem statement and outline the specific query which the researcher seeks to answer. After the research question(s) is/are stated, the resulting hypothesis is outlined. For example, if the problem of the study is related to why women have higher scores than men on an IQ test in a certain district, one of the research questions may be: What percentage of women has higher IQ scores than men in this district? Qualitative Research In qualitative research such as in Grounded Theory, or Critical Theory research, research questions usually focus on one concept or idea rather than making assumptions among groups. In this type of research, research questions also are often based on hunches or personal experience. An example of a research question in qualitative research is How do Kenyan women view domestic violence? In qualitative research, research questions may generate data which may generate a pattern for stating a generalized statement such as a hypothesis or theory. Types of Research Questions Gray (2004, p. 70) distinguishes between four types of research questions: descriptive, normative, correlative and impact research questions. Descriptive research questions are about what is happening and may show which methods are being used. An example of a descriptive research question is what proportion of private universities has a health and safety policy? Descriptive questions may be answered without the need for a hypothesis as their aim is simply to establish a frequency. Normative research questions seek to establish what is actually happening in contrast to the norm or what should be happening. An example of a normative question is to what extent are private universities complying with health and safety laws? Normative questions may be answered with a narrative rather than the use of a hypothesis. Correlative questions seek to establish relationships and are interested in the strength of relationships between variables. An example of a correlative question is what is the relationship between management style, university ranking and compliance with health and safety regulations? While correlative questions may be tested by hypotheses, they do not seek to establish causality but intend to correlate variables and show the existence or otherwise of significant relationships between them. Impact questions seek to establish causality in relationships between variables and measure the effect which variables have on one another (i.e. what impact does a change in variable x have on variable y?). An example of an impact question is does compliance with health and safety regulations have an impact on productivity? Impact questions may also be tested by hypotheses. Examples of Research Questions Research questions are derived from the objectives of the study and should help to break down the problem of study into manageable units. If the problem of the study is about the relationship between input metrics and the effectiveness of universal basic education, where input metrics are defined by: The teacher-pupil ratio Classroom availability Textbook availability Availability of audio visual tools Availability of learning materials including chalkboards, chairs and desks, and stationery Valid research questions in this scenario would include: Does universal basic education receive critical support from the government regarding its input metrics? What is the relationship between the teacher pupil ratio and the effectiveness of universal basic education? What is the impact of classroom availability on the effectiveness of universal basic education? What is the relationship between textbook availability and the effectiveness of universal basic education? Is the effectiveness of universal basic education influenced by the availability of audio visual tools? What is the relationship between availability of learning materials and the effectiveness of universal basic education? The first question does not require the use of a hypothesis but the other questions do. This is because the first question can be approached by using a narrative based on qualitative study using observation and primary and secondary data. These different variables, as mentioned earlier, should each have indicators which are measurable and attainable in order to properly use the research questions above. Linking Research Questions to Other Parts of the Study Research questions are derived from the purpose and objectives of the study and are often tied to each hypothesis, which are logical extensions of the research questions themselves. Research questions help to narrow the focus of the research on researchable areas within the scope of the study. The research questions can be directly linked with the findings of the research in qualitative studies where there are no hypotheses. In this case, questions may be used to guide the researcher and when a tangential point becomes of greater interest, new questions are used to determine the ways in which to approach the research bearing in mind the new evidence uncovered. The research questions are also linked directly to the research problem which underpins the study. The research problem may in itself be too wide in scope to be satisfactorily tackled by limited research. The research questions therefore, help to streamline the research into areas which may be studied. Limitations of Research Questions Research questions are useful inasmuch as they ask questions which can be linked directly with the objectives of the study. In quantitative studies, just like hypotheses, they help to narrow down the area of focus for the research on acquiring information which is researchable and desirable. In qualitative studies they help to set the focus for commencing discussions into the area of study in order that data may be generated. Research questions are simply statements of a focused objective of the study. They are used especially when the researcher may not want to specify the direction of the relationship among the variables, or they may be used to determine the key variables from the research objectives. Comparing and Contrasting Hypotheses with Research Questions The following is a point by point contrast and comparison between hypotheses and research questions Area Hypotheses Research Questions Use Generated from qualitative research but used in quantitative studies Used in both quantitative and qualitative research Outcome In a hypothesis, the predicted relationship between variables is either true or false With a research question, the answer to the question may be closed (e.g. a yes or no answer) or may be open and descriptive in nature. Verification A hypothesis is empirically verifiable The answer to a research question may not always be verifiable Generation Hypotheses are generated from research questions Research questions are generated from the research problem. They may or may not generate a hypothesis Intent The hypothesis helps to test a relationship between variables i.e. can be tested and verified The research question seeks to help gather preliminary data for a study In Qualitative research Hypotheses are generated Research questions are used as a guide As can be seen from the above, research questions are quite integral to the concept of research just as much as they are indelibly linked to hypotheses, in quantitative research. The two are used as an aid to delimiting concepts for empirical study in quantitative research and while research questions are used to guide qualitative research, hypotheses are products of qualitative research. Summary and Conclusion The focus of this paper has been to show the various differences between hypotheses and research questions and how these concepts are used in research. These have been highlighted starting with functional definitions, explanations and limitations of the various concepts involved. The different types of hypotheses and research questions have also been enumerated and explained while showing how they may be used in research. The paper has shown concrete contextual examples to illustrate the different concepts from a local perspective and examples of each concept have been used to aid the reader at each step. This paper has concluded with a tabular exposition of the contrast between research questions and hypotheses for validation of premises earlier outlined.

The Spinx :: essays papers

The Spinx In a depression to the south of Chephren's pyramid sits a creature with a human head and a lion's body. The name 'sphinx' which means 'strangler' was first given by the Greeks to a fabulous creature which had the head of a woman and the body of a lion and the wings of a bird. The sphinx appears to have started in Egypt in the form of a sun god. The Egyptian sphinx is usually a head of a king wearing his headdress and the body of a lion . There are, however, sphinxes with ram heads that are associated with the god Amun. The Great Sphinx is to the northeast of Chephren's Valley Temple. Where it sits was once a quarry. Chephren's workers shaped the stone into the lion and gave it their king's face over 4,500 years ago. The sphinx faces the rising sun with a temple to the front, which resembles the sun temples which were built later by the kings of the 5th Dynasty. The figure was buried for most of its life in the sand. King Thutmose IV (1425 - 1417 BC) placed a stela between the front paws of the figure. It describes when Thutmose, while still a prince, had gone hunting and fell asleep in the shade of the sphinx. During a dream, the sphinx spoke to Thutmose and told him to clear away the sand because it was choking the sphinx. The sphinx told him that if he did this, he would be rewarded with a kingship. Thutmose carried out this request and the sphinx held up his end of the deal. The sphinx is built of soft sandstone and would have disappeared long ago had it not been buried for so long. The body is 200 feet in length and 65 feet tall. The face of the sphinx is 13 feet wide and its eyes are 6 feet high. Part of the uraeus (sacred cobra), the nose and the ritual beard are now missing. The beard from the sphinx is displayed in the British Museum. The statue is crumbling today because of the wind, humidity and the smog from Cairo. Attempts to restore it have often caused more harm than good. No one can be certain who the figure is to personify. It is possible that it is Chephren. If that is so, it would then be the oldest known royal portrait in such large scale.